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Establishment of fast growing and high yield plantations and development of timber plantations is a strategic approach in China's forestry development. As early as in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Ministry of Forestry put forward the guideline for establishment of timber plantations: that timber plantations should be established in selected bases and managed by forest farms for high timber yield; 240 stretches of timber plantation bases were planned. Due to the interference of the subsequent Great Leap Forward in 1958 and the Cultural Revolution, the plan was not implemented.In the mid-1970s, it was proposed to establish fast growing and high yield timber plantation bases mainly with Cunninghamia lanceolata in southern China with support of special funds from the State government and, by 1980, 3.2 million hectares had been recorded in statistics. On March 5, 1980, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council promulgated the Directive on Vigorously Carrying out Tree-planting and Afforestation Activities which states that in order to speed up forestry development in China and mitigate as soon as possible shortage in supply of timber and economic forest products, all local authorities shall select favourable sites and suitable tree species for establishment of fast growing and high yield timber plantations, and guarantee monetary and material supply for integrated management. In a bid to obtain experience to guide the national undertaking for establishment of fast growing and high yield plantations, the Ministry of Forestry set up, in succession, joint trial plots with provincial/autonomous region authorities in 111 counties and 106 State forest farms in 20 provinces/autonomous regions. By the end of 1986, over 100,000 hectares of such trial plantations had been established with major species including Cunninghamia lanceolata. Eucalyptus, Populus and Pinus elliottii. Meanwhile, many provinces/autonomous regions started to establish fast growing and high yield plantations and over 1.5 million hectares of such plantations have been established throughout China as per incomplete statistics.Survey results of a few years in the trial plantations provided practical growth data according to which China has preliminarily worked out criteria for timber yield for major fast growing and high yield species. For instance, the annual average increment is over 10.5 cubic meters per hectare for a 20-year-old Chinese fir stand, 15 cubic meters per hectare for 15-year-old Buxus microphylla, and over 22.5 cubic meters per hectare for 10-year-old Poplar clone 1-72. These indexes, although still low compared to those in the developed countries, are much higher than the growth of the existing plantations and fit in with the current technical and management level in China.Table 12 - National Statistics on Area of Afforestation by the State*, Unit: 1,000 hectaresYearState afforestation areaYearState afforestation area1949-1952138.21975944.8195327.41976948.5195465.91977802.11955113.41978728.41956249.01979831.2195719891980684.41958440.01981571.31959630.51982498.71960751.31983644.91961322.31984698.31962262.71985770.61963292.81986477.61964508.319935,932.91965660.719946,022.61966781.61949-1952138.21967633.21953-1957654.71968519.91958-19622,306.81969565.11963-18651,461.81970505.41966-19703,005.21971718.01971-19754,665.919721,032.31976-19803,994.619731,067.51981-19853,250.71974903.31949-198620,055.4* The figures in this Table only refer to new area planted except where cumulative totals are given.Source: Forestry Yearbook of China, 1949-1986, 1993, 1994.As per statistics, the area of timber plantation established between 1980 and 1987 was 28.92 million hectares accounting for 33.5% of the total plantation area established since 1949, of which 3.83 million hectares were fast growing and high yield timber plantations accounting for 13.2% of the total area of timber plantation in this period. Between 1988 and 1992, 16.17 million hectares of timber plantations were established of which 2.5 million hectares were fast growing and high yield timber plantations making up 15% of the total timber plantations in this period. In recent years, the area of fast growing and high yield timber plantations has been increased by 0.5 million hectares each year and the actual area of established timber plantations was 34.5 million hectares in 1994 in China.In the light of the emerging issues and problems challenging timber plantation development in the new era, especially the development of fast growing and high yield timber plantations, the Department of Silviculture and Forest Management of the Ministry of Forestry carried out an overall survey and review of the national development of fast growing and high yield plantations in 1994. The findings show that, since the State Council's consent and the State Planning Commission's approval of the plan to establish fast growing and high yield timber plantation bases of 6.7 million hectares, over 3.446 million hectares of such plantations (2.871 million hectares newly planted, 0.161 million hectares improved young stands and 0.414 million hectares regenerated plantations) or 43% of the planed area had been established by year 1994 nation-wide with a stock volume of 45.819 million cubic meters and an annual growth of 10.17 million cubic meters. As far as species is concerned, conifers dominate China's fast growing and high yield timber plantations accounting for 76%, of which Cunninghamia lanceolata makes up 46% and pine species 30%.In 1994, the national afforestation area for timber plantations totalled 2.504 million hectares making up 41.8% of the State's total afforestation area of that year but 11% less than the timber plantation area established in 1993, of which 0.463 million hectares were fast growing and high yield timber plantations, 8.32% less than that of 1993.In order to secure the smooth development of timber plantations, the State has utilized the following channels to guarantee financing needed for timber plantation development:· Investment under the State planning. In recent years, the Ministry of Forestry has allocated RMB 20-30 million yuan to support the joint establishment of fast growing and high yield plantations by the Ministry and provinces. Between 1980-1986, RMB 83 million yuan was invested and 100,000 hectares planted.· Local investment. Some provinces/autonomous regions and counties allocate funds every year from the local finance to establish timber plantations. For instance, in Guangdong Province, the provincial Finance Department has allocated RMB 12.91 million yuan each year in recent years for establishment of plantation bases; in Hubei Province, RMB 13 million yuan (5 million from the provincial Planning Commission and 8 million from the provincial Finance Department) were allocated between 1980-1985 for fast growing and high yield plantations.· Forestry loans from State banks. In recent years, many provinces and counties have allocated from agricultural loans a certain amount of fund as forestry loans, and the forestry sector pays interests by using the regeneration funds of collective forests and the afforestation subsidies from the State. This practice has been adopted in Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, Liaoning and Hubei. Guangdong Province releases RMB 10 million yuan of forestry loans each year and Hubei Province has released RMB 20 million yuan of discount forestry loans every year from 1984. Since 1986, the State has decided to release discount loans worth RMB 300 million yuan for forestry projects of which 42% is for establishment of high yield plantations.· Collection of refundable levies for regeneration funds. In Fujian Province, 20-50% of the log price is deducted by the forestry sector as regeneration fund which will be returned to the payers after regeneration is completed. In Sanming Prefecture, where such practice has proved successful, 80% of the afforestation financing is provided by production units from their log sales. In Chongyi County of Jiangxi Province, RMB 10 yuan per cubic meter is deducted from the log sales as the regeneration fund of the forest owner which is deposited in a special bank account and managed by the county Forestry Station for silvicultural purposes. Misappropriation is forbidden. Since such a system is adopted, about RMB 1.2-1.5 million yuan can be withdrawn every year as silvicultural fund.· Investment by the timber demanding sectors. Since 1980s, some timber demanding regions or sectors have undertaken joint afforestation activities with rural collectives by means of compensation trade or joint forest farm ventures. In most cases, the timber demanding sector provides investment and techniques while the rural collective contributes labour; the timber thus produced shall supply mainly the investor. This is a mutually beneficial practice which not only can supply timber for the demanding sector, but also helps farmers to vitalize forestry and become rich.In order to boost State investment, the World Bank Forestry Development Project (Credit 605-CHA) was introduced in 1985. This project aimed to support mainly the 92 State forest farms in Guangdong, Sichuan and Heilongjiang to establish and transform commercial timber plantations, construct forest roads and procure accessory equipment. Implementation of this project not only demonstrates the ability of State forest farms in project implementation but also provides a good opportunity for the Ministry of Forestry to accumulate experience in management of multi-provincial involvement in projects of the International Development Association.In June, 1988, the Chinese government requested the World Bank to provide financing and cooperation to introduce advanced techniques for establishment of fast growing and high yield timber plantations in 16 provinces/autonomous regions. The scale of afforestation in the first phase of the project is 985,000 hectares with a total investment of RMB 2,357 million yuan of which the World Bank loan is US$ 300 million. In 1989, the State Planning Commission, in its document coded Nongjing (1989) No. 245, approved the Proposal of the Ministry of Forestry Concerning the First Phase of the Project to Establish 6.7 Million Hectares of Fast Growing and High Yield Plantation Bases by Using the World Bank Loan and Domestic Counterpart Funds. In May, 1990, technical negotiations were conducted between the two sides and consensus was reached. On May 29, 1990, the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank approved the on-going China National Afforestation Project (CR. 2145-CHA). In December 1991, the Ministry of Forestry submitted to the World Bank, in accordance with the comments and recommendations of the World Bank experts, the Proposal for the Forest Resources Development and Protection Project (FRDPP). The Ministry of forestry compiled the Feasibility Study of the Forest Resources Development and Protection Project and submitted in February 1994 to the State Planning Commission for approval. The scale of FRDPP is 900,000 hectares with a project duration of 6 years (including 2 years for tending of young stands) and a total investment of RMB 2,900 million yuan of which the World Bank loan is US$ 200 million. It is proven that establishment of fast growing and high yield timber plantations is a practical and strategic measure to build up forest resources, reduce from resource and economic crises, mitigate the mismatch between wood demand and supply, maintain and improve ecosystems and the environment at large.The overall objective for development of timber plantations in China takes the existing forest regions and key forestry counties as the basis, gives priority to regeneration, transformation and improvement of the existing low quality stands, integrates regeneration with tending of young and middle age stands, adopts approaches of intensive and oriented management. Areas with favourable site conditions are selected to be the fast growing and high yield timber plantations. The overall scale as per planning shall be 40.35 million hectares of timber plantations, of which 27.66 million hectares are fast growing and high yield timber plantations. The new fast growing and high yield timber plantation development programme will be implemented in 3 periods:· During the Ninth Five-Year Plan period (1996-2000), 3.34 million hectares are planned of which new plantations shall be 1.55 million hectares, cultivation of young and middle age stands 1.13 million hectares, regeneration of logged sites 0.66 million hectares;· Between 2001 and 2010, 6.39 million hectares are planned, of which new fast growing and high yield timber plantations shall be 3.45 million hectares, transformation of the existing forests into fast growing and high yield plantations be 1.06 million hectares, and cultivation of young and middle aged stands for fast growing and high yield plantations be 1.88 million hectares;· Between 2011-2050, 13.29 million hectares are planned.As far as regional distribution is concerned, the existing plantations will be considered as the basis for development. Afforestation activities will be carried out in eastern and southern China from the Great and Minor Xing'an mountains to Fujian and Guizhou provinces with priority given to the collective forest regions in southern China where water and sunshine are abundant for the development of fast growing and high yield timber plantations while moderate consideration shall be given to north-east China and the Altay Region in Xinjiang. Class I and II forest land with favourable site conditions and easy access will be selected in the 20 large stretches and 5 small patches of timber bases to adopt focused and intensive management to supply the State, within a short time period, with large volume of timber. By 2000, the overall distribution of the proposed 7.98 million hectares of fast growing and high yield timber plantations will be that, by management unit, 6.67 million hectares or 83.6% shall be established in 292 plantation base counties and 905 State forest farms, and 1.31 million hectares or 16.4% by 82 forest industrial enterprises.2.2.2 National Compulsory Tree Planting CampaignOn December 13, 1981, the Fourth Session of the Fifth National People's Congress adopted the Resolution on National Compulsory Tree Planting Campaign which states that "afforestation and territory greening is a holy undertaking for socialist development and benefits of future generations, and also a major strategic measure to harness rivers and mountains, and safeguard and improve the environment. In order to speed up the realization of the great goal of greening our motherland, promote the good Chinese tradition of tree planting and forest loving, and further set up the morality and custom of collectivism and communism, the Session decides to carry out a national compulsory tree planting campaign". It further states that "wherever possible, each and every Chinese citizen, 11 years old and over, excluding the old, weak, sick and disabled, should plant 3-5 trees per year in the light of the specific local conditions, or accomplish equivalent amount of work in seedling production, forest management and protection and other greening activities".The Fourth Session of the Fifth National People's Congress urged the State Council to formulate, as per the spirit of the Resolution, the Regulations for Implementation of the National compulsory Tree Planting Campaign which states that " every citizen of the People's Republic of China, 11-60 for male and 11-55 for female, except those who have lost ability to work, shall undertake the commitment of compulsory tree planting and all working units should report the actual number of employees to the local greening committee as a basis for allocation of workload," and that " for youngsters between 11 and 17 years old, physical labour shall be arranged nearby in light of their practical conditions". And it further stipulates that "this compulsory labour is confined to the scope under jurisdiction of a given county/city for establishing State and collective forests".Between 1981-1985, over 5 billion trees were planted under the National Compulsory Tree Planting Campaign. In the urban area, about 100 million trees are planted each year which doubled the annual planting before the National Compulsory Tree Planting Campaign, and the green commons in urban China increased by 50% compared to the period before national compulsory tree planting. The statistics of 324 Chinese cities show that the number of cities with over 20% green cover has increased from 37 prior to compulsory tree planting up to the current 89; the number of urban parks has increased, from the previous 728, by 70 each year; the number of cities with 3-5 square meters of per capita green commons has increased from 45 to 101. In cities, people's bias against grass growing is vanishing and increasingly higher priority is given to lawn development. In Beijing, the total area of lawn increased from 0.39 million square meters in 1979 up to over 6 million square meters in 1986, a rise of 16 times.In rural China, compulsory tree planting has been carried out along with the process of rural reform in light of specific local conditions. In some localities, farmers are organized to plant trees on the barren mountains and along river banks under State ownership or collective tenure. In most cases, funds are raised from diverse channels, farmers contribute their labour in soil preparation and planting; the planted area is then divided into sections or patches and contracted to farmers for long-term management and protection in a bid to establish all kinds of greening projects such as shelterbelt forests, highway and railway greening, river bank greening, gully or mountain afforestation, establishment of a landscape zone or a farmers' park, etc.. Under the impetus of the National Compulsory Tree Planting Campaign, the national target of tree-planting and grass sowing during the Sixth Five-Year plan period was over-fulfilled. The "four-side" planting develops rapidly in plain agricultural zones and in the regions with little forest. During the Sixth Five-Year Plan period, compared to the Fifth Five-Year Plan period, aerial seeding covered 4 million hectares, a rise of 1.7 times; aerial sowing of grass seeds covered 0.584 million hectares, a rise of 14 times; the area of fruit orchards increased by 26.9% and the production of citrus, apple and pearl increased by 47.7 %.Great progress was scored in 1994 in the National Compulsory Tree Planting Campaign and the national undertaking of afforestation and greening. The Ministry of Forestry worked out and promulgated the Provisional Regulations on National Inspection and Acceptance Techniques for Afforestation of Plantable Barren Mountains and Wasteland and the Major Indicators and Requirements for Elimination of Plantable Barren Mountains and Wasteland (for trial implementation); the National Greening Committee and the Ministry of Forestry jointly issued the Circular on Furthering Afforestation and Greening of Plantable Barren Mountains and Wasteland which have guided China's afforestation and wasteland elimination on to the right track of standardized management. Since 1990, time equivalent to over 2.2 billion persons each contributing once have participated in the compulsory tree planting activities with 11 billion trees planted. In 1994, time equivalent to 490 million of the same time inputs participated in compulsory tree planting activities with 2.52 billion trees being planted; the urban green commons increased by 36,000 hectares with the per capita share reaching 4.4 square meters.2.3 Development of Ecological Forestry Programmes 2.3.1 The Three-North Shelterbelt Development Programme 2.3.2 Shelterbelt Development Programme along the Upper and Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River 2.3.3 The Coastal Shelterbelt Development Programme 2.3.4 Plain Afforestation Programme 2.3.5 Taihang Mountains Afforestation Programme 2.3.6 National Programme to Combat Desertification 2.3.7 Shelterbelt Development Programme for Comprehensive Management of Huaihe River and Taihu Lake Basin Area 2.3.8 Shelterbelt Development Programme in the Pearl River Valley 2.3.9 Integrated Shelterbelt Development Programme in Liaohe River Valley 2.3.10 Shelterbelt Development Programme along the Middle Reaches of the Yellow River 2b1af7f3a8