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The low-lying northern coast and Nile Delta region are a high priority for adaptation to climate change (UNDP, 2017865). The Egyptian government has committed 200 million USD to hard coastal protection at Alexandria and adopted integrated coastal zone management for the northern coast. Recent activities include integrating SLR risks within adaptation planning for social-ecological systems, with special focus on coastal urban areas, agriculture, migration and other human security dimensions (Government of Egypt, 2016866; UNDP, 2017867).

Seabed dredging of sand and gravel can have negative impacts on marine ecosystems such as seagrass meadows and corals (Erftemeijer and Lewis III, 20061615; Erftemeijer et al., 20121616). Nourishment practices on sandy beaches have also been shown to have drawbacks for local ecosystems if local habitat factors are not taken into consideration when planning and implementing nourishment and maintenance (Speybroeck et al., 20061617). A further emerging issue is beach material scarcity mainly driven by demand of sand and gravel for construction, but also for beach and shore nourishment (Peduzzi, 20141618; Torres et al., 20171619), which makes sourcing the increasing volumes of beach materials required to sustain beaches in the face of SLR more expensive and challenging (Roelvink, 20151620).

In response, in a second generation of studies, several frameworks have been proposed and tested to advance scholarship on barriers to adaptation (Eisenack and Stecker, 2012; Barnett et al., 2015; Lehmann et al., 2015; Bisaro and Hinkel, 2016). A frequently used framework was developed by Moser and Ekstrom (2010) who identified and linked key barriers to certain stages of the policy process: understanding, planning and management stages. Moser and Ekstrom (2010) argue that conditions, such as the scope and scale of adaptation, have significant implications for which barriers are activated in the policy process, and how persistent and difficult they are to overcome. This and other frameworks have been applied in a diversity of contexts, providing valuable insights about the governance challenges involved in adapting to climate change and suggestions for improvement (Ekstrom and Moser, 2014; Rosendo et al., 2018; Thaler et al., 2019).

Cross-scale and cross-domain coordination: SLR creates new coordination problems across jurisdictional levels and domains, because impacts cut across scales, sectors and policy domains and responding often exceeds the capacities of local governments and communities (medium confidence; Araos et al., 2017; Termeer et al., 2017; Pinto et al., 2018; Clar, 2019; Clar and Steurer, 2019; Sections 4.3.2 and 4.4.2). Local responses are generally nested within a hierarchy of local, regional, national and international governance arrangements and cut across sectors (Cuevas, 2018; Chhetri et al., 2019; Clar, 2019). Furthermore responding to SLR is only one administrative priority amongst many, and the choice of SLR response is influenced by multiple co-existing functional responsibilities and perspectives (e.g., planning, emergency management, asset management and community development) that compete for legitimacy, further complicating the coordination challenge (Klein et al., 2016; Vij et al., 2017; Jones et al., 2019).

Irrespective of whether expected utility or robustness criteria are applied, there is high confidence that an effective way of dealing with large uncertainties is adaptive decision making (also called iterative decision making, adaptive planning or adaptive management), which maintains that decision and decision analysis should be conducted within an iterative policy cycle. This approach includes monitoring of sea level variables and evaluation of alternatives in this light in order to learn from past decisions and collect information to inform future decisions (Haasnoot et al., 20132175; Barnett et al., 20142176; Burch et al., 20142177; Jones et al., 20142178; Wise et al., 20142179; Kelly, 20152180; Lawrence and Haasnoot, 20172181). Such a staged approach is especially suitable for coastal adaptation due to the long lead and lifetimes of many coastal adaptation measures and the deep uncertainties in future sea levels (Hallegatte, 20092182; Kelly, 20152183). Prominent representatives of methods that entail this idea are Dynamic Adaptive Policy Pathways (Haasnoot et al., 20132184) and Dynamic Adaptation Planning (Walker et al., 20012185). An important prerequisite for any adaptive decision-making approach is a monitoring system that can detect sea level signals sufficiently early to enable the required responses (Hermans et al., 20172186; Haasnoot et al., 20182187; Stephens et al., 20182188).

India began using grid management on a regional basis in the 1960s. Individual State grids were interconnected to form 5 regional grids covering mainland India, the Northern, Eastern, Western, North Eastern and Southern Grids. These regional links were established to enable transmission of surplus electricity between states in each region. In the 1990s, the Indian government began planning for a national grid. Regional grids were initially interconnected by asynchronous high-voltage direct current (HVDC) back-to-back links facilitating the limited exchange of regulated power. The links were subsequently upgraded to high capacity synchronous links.[24]

Dams are a critical infrastructure system for many communities, but they are also one of the most challenging to inspect. Dams are typically very large and complex structures, and the result is that inspections are often time-intensive and require expensive, specialized equipment and training to provide inspectors with comprehensive access to the structure. The scale and nature of dam inspections also introduce additional safety risks to the inspectors. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) have the potential to address many of these challenges, particularly when used as a data acquisition platform for photogrammetric three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction and analysis, though the nature of both UAV and modern photogrammetric methods necessitates careful planning and coordination for integration. This paper presents a case study on one such integration at the Brighton Dam, a large-scale concrete gravity dam in Maryland, USA. A combination of multiple UAV platforms and multi-scale photogrammetry was used to create two comprehensive and high-resolution 3D point clouds of the dam and surrounding environment at intervals. These models were then assessed for their overall quality, as well as their ability to resolve flaws and defects that were artificially applied to the structure between inspection intervals. The results indicate that the integrated process is capable of generating models that accurately render a variety of defect types with sub-millimeter accuracy. Recommendations for mission planning and imaging specifications are provided as well.

First, there is a lack of coordination between regional and national transmission planning. The organizations responsible for regional transmission planning are often legally constrained from prioritizing the reduction of carbon emissions. Furthermore, construction of new transmission requires an extensive siting and permitting process that can stretch for over a decade and may put the goal of a carbon-free electric grid by 2035 out of reach. The result is an economic-based chicken and egg problem, with transmission developers hesitant to build, not knowing whether the generators will provide the power to fill the new lines, and investors in new renewable generation are equally reluctant to invest when the availability of transmission to move their power is in doubt.14 We focus in this policy brief on the transmission challenges in an electricity system heavily reliant on intermittent renewables. If left unsolved, these obstacles could significantly raise the costs of a widespread expansion of utility scale renewable power.

The other problem with existing transmission planning is the focus on upgrades that are linked to the location of new generation. Instead, it may be more cost effective to assess the needs of the whole network. For example, instead of upgrading specific lines, the better answer may be to upgrade the grid by adding several smaller lines in other parts of the system, thus increasing the capacity of the entire network as opposed to a particular corridor. It is important to remember that electricity does not follow a linear path, but rather flows throughout the system in response to resistance. This conclusion was recently illustrated by a team from the engineering department at Tufts University in assessing the transmission improvements needed to transmit the power from wind developments off the coasts of New England and the Mid-Atlantic states to load centers in the two regions.26 Transmission planning and cost allocation processes focused on nearby upgrades for individual projects can also inhibit construction of interregional transmission projects that enable the cost effective interconnection of multiple new generation facilities dispersed over a broader region.27

Similarly, programme monitoring and evaluation are important for strategic planning; it is timely to revisit monitoring indicators of the national NCD programme and strive for a sustainable surveillance system [19]. Understanding the burden of disease through population-level data systems is essential; evidence suggests that development of monitoring indicators and an information system are vital for effective programmatic decision-making under the NCD programme in India [24, 38]. Lessons and good practices can be adapted from other programmes such as the National AIDS control programme, where a national web-enabled strategic management information systems improved programme management and monitoring situation for AIDS control in India [74].

An understanding of the patient landscape and specific global models can inform technological policy innovations which can lower barriers to effective NCD screening, diagnosis and management [75]. The WHO Package of Essential NCD Interventions (WHO PEN) is such an action-oriented set of cost-effective integrated interventions at the primary health care level and is documented to be the most effective in tackling health system issues [20]. Integration could be happened across different national health programme as well to optimize health system resources, e.g. breast cancer and cervical cancer, which have gender implications, could be better screened and handled if integrated into RMNCH+A programme [76]. A policy can be chalked out to encourage women from participating in community breast and cancer screening programme [77]. India should acknowledge the growing burden of mental health disorders and could set an example by [78, 79] including mental health in its national NCD programme. Policies to create a positive environment for promoting healthy lifestyles need to be prioritized. Also, the government should consider the impact on health while planning and implementing other non-health-related policies. Harnessing interventions from AYUSH, such as yoga, breathing exercises, meditation and others, and evaluating them through rigorous scientific methods to understand their efficacy in NCD prevention and health promotion is important. 2b1af7f3a8